Before microchips, before electronic calculation, before nanosecond data processing, the human brain deciphered the most difficult numeric equations. In NASA's early years that meant flesh-and-blood computers, mathematically gifted individuals tasked with analysis and verification of complex aerospace data.
Among NASA's human computers, today one of the most recognized is Katherine Johnson.
Precocious and obsessed with and by numbers, Johnson, born in 1918, made her mark early, attending at the age of 13 high school on the campus of historically black West Virginia State College. At 18 she enrolled in the college itself, where she made quick work of the school's math curriculum, graduating with high honors and finding a teaching job at a black public school in Virginia.
In 1953 she was hired at Langley's all-black West Area Computing Section, headed by fellow West Virginian Dorothy Vaughan. Johnson would become an integral part of the Space Task Group, a core group of researchers who made American manned space travel a reality.
She did trajectory analysis for Alan Shepard's May 1961 mission, Freedom 7, America's first human spaceflight. Johnson verified the orbital equations controlling the trajectory of the capsule in John Glenn's Friendship 7 mission, from blastoff to splashdown — calculations that would help to sync Project Apollo's Lunar Lander with the moon-orbiting Command and Service Module.
Johnson also worked on the space shuttle and the Earth Resources Satellite, and authored or co-authored 26 research reports. After 33 years at Langley, Johnson retired in 1986.
In 2015, at age 97, Katherine Johnson added another achievement: the Presidential Medal of Freedom, America's highest civilian honor, bestowed by President Barack Obama.
An additional honor awaited; at age 98, on May 5, 2016, she returned to Langley, on the 55th anniversary of Alan Shepard's historic flight, to attend a ceremony where a $30-million, 40,000-square-foot Computational Research Facility was named in her honor. Johnson also received a Silver Snoopy award, given for outstanding contributions to flight safety and mission success.
Katherine Johnson and a number of her West Area colleagues are the subjects of the film “Hidden Figures,” based on the book of the same name by Margot Lee Shetterly. “Hidden Figures” was chosen by National Board of Review as one of 2016’s top 10 films, nominated for three Oscars and the recipient of a number of awards and accolades.
Learn More:
She Was a Computer When Computers Wore Skirts
Katherine Johnson: The Girl Who Loved to Count
Who is Katherine Johnson? (K-4)
Katherine Johnson Biography
NASA Image of the Day: Katherine Johnson at Work, 1962
NASA Langley's Katherine Johnson page
From Hidden Figures to Modern Figures
Melba Roy headed the group of NASA mathematicians, known as "computers," who tracked the Echo satellites. Roy's computations helped produce the orbital element timetables by which millions could view the satellite from Earth as it passed overhead.
Image Credit: NASA
In 1955, Annie Easley began her career at NASA, then the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), as a human computer performing complex mathematical calculations.
When human computers were replaced by machines, Easley evolved along with the technology. She became an adept computer programmer, using languages like the Formula Translating System (Fortran) to support a number of NASA’s programs. She developed and implemented code used in researching energy-conversion systems, analyzing alternative power technology—including the battery technology that was used for early hybrid vehicles, as well as for the Centaur upper-stage rocket. Her contributions to the Centaur project framed the technological foundation for launching future satellites and space vehicles, including the 1997 launch of Cassini to Saturn.
Later in her career at NASA, she took on the additional role of equal employment opportunity (EEO) counselor. In this role she helped supervisors address issues of gender, race, and age in discrimination complaints at the lowest level and in the most cooperative way possible.
Annie Easley retired in 1989 after 34 years with NASA. She passed away on June 25, 2011.
Annie Easley Full Bio
Annie Easley, An Oral History
Annie Easley had never heard of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) when she read an article about twin sisters who were “human computers” at the Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory in Cleveland, Ohio. The Lab (the predecessor of the NASA Glenn Research Center) was in need of people with strong math skills, and she was in need of a job after recently relocating from Birmingham, Alabama. Two weeks after reading the article, Easley began a career that would span 34 years. She would contribute to numerous programs as a computer scientist, inspire many through her enthusiastic participation in outreach programs, break down barriers for women and people of color in science, technology, engineering, and mathematic (STEM) fields, and win the admiration and respect of her coworkers.
In 1955, Easley began her career as a “human computer,” doing computations for researchers. This involved analyzing problems and doing calculations by hand. Her earliest work involved running simulations for the newly planned Plum Brook Reactor Facility. When hired, she was one of only four African-American employees at the Lab. In a 2001 interview she said that she had never set out to be a pioneer. “I just have my own attitude. I’m out here to get the job done, and I knew I had the ability to do it, and that’s where my focus was.” Even in the face of discrimination, she persevered. “My head is not in the sand. But my thing is, if I can’t work with you, I will work around you. I was not about to be [so] discouraged that I’d walk away. That may be a solution for some people, but it’s not mine.”
When human computers were replaced by machines, Easley evolved along with the technology. She became an adept computer programmer, using languages like the Formula Translating System (Fortran) and the Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP) to support a number of NASA’s programs. She developed and implemented code used in researching energy-conversion systems, analyzing alternative power technology—including the battery technology that was used for early hybrid vehicles, as well as for the Centaur upper-stage rocket.
In the 1970s, Easley returned to school to earn her degree in mathematics from Cleveland State, doing much of her coursework while also working full time. A firm believer in education and in her mother’s advice “You can be anything you want to be, but you have to work at it,” Easley was very dedicated in her outreach efforts at NASA. She not only participated in school tutoring programs but was a very active participant in the speaker’s bureau—telling students about NASA’s work and inspiring especially female and minority students to consider STEM careers.
Later in her career, she took on the additional role of equal employment opportunity (EEO) counselor. In this role she helped supervisors address issues of gender, race, and age in discrimination complaints at the lowest level and in the most cooperative way possible. Less formally, she helped pave the way for women’s rights at the Center when she and her room supervisor made a pact to wear pantsuits the following day. Again, from her 2001 interview, “…it did cause quite a stir, but there was one woman who said, ‘I was just waiting for the first one to wear pants.’ You know, we took the emphasis off [of] what you’re wearing. It’s more like what you’re actually producing.”
A Lewis News article quoted one of Easley’s coworkers as saying, “She loves life and encourages others to do the same.” In addition to her technical and outreach activities, Easley was a champion of employee morale. She was a founding member of the Ski Club and was very active in the annual children’s Christmas play, Center athletics, and the Business & Professional Women’s association.
Easley would humbly state that she never set out to be a role model or trailblazer. Many who knew her would say that it was not just the work that she did that made a difference; it was her energy and positive attitude that had a tremendous impact on the Center. In the 35-page transcript of her 2001 NASA oral history interview, Easley consistently emphasizes the importance of teamwork and expresses appreciation and admiration for those she worked with. There are many illustrations throughout her career of her determination and discipline, kindness, and generosity.
Easley retired in 1989, but she remained an active participant in the Speaker’s Bureau and the Business & Professional Women’s association. Annie Easley passed away on June 25, 2011.
